N-body simulations are now the standard approach to studying non- linear structure formation. With ~trillion particle simulations now possible, containing many billions of dark matter halos, measures of key quantities (such as the halo mass function) can be made at extremely high precision.

The stellar mass of star forming galaxies is thought to increase in a quasi-steady state, where the rate depends on the gas fraction and star formation efficiency, which evolve with redshift.

Star-forming galaxies are often observed to have galactic winds - gas that is being ejected from the galaxy in phases ranging from cold molecular clouds to hot X-ray emitting plasma.